Agricultural Policies and Resistance in Colonial India

The Need to Improve Agriculture

Economic Ruin and Revenue
The British East India Company faced economic challenges that prompted officials to consider agricultural improvement as a means of securing revenue.
Thoughts: An increase in agricultural productivity could lead to a stable income for the Company, benefiting both the landlords and the colonial administrators.
Permanent Settlement of 1793
The Company implemented the Permanent Settlement, recognizing zamindars (landlords) and taluqadars as tax collectors responsible for revenue collection from peasants.
Ideas: This system intended to encourage landlords to improve land use, as they would benefit from higher production and fixed revenue obligations.
Challenges Faced by Zamindars
The zamindars experienced difficulties in collecting fixed revenue due to peasants’ inability to pay, leading to auctions of zamindari rights.
Additional Info: This pressure on zamindars reflected broader socio-economic issues where the agricultural output was hindered by inadequate investment in land improvements.
Market Changes in the Nineteenth Century
By the 1800s, prices began to rise, and there was an expansion in cultivation; however, the Company saw no increase in revenue.
Thoughts: The lack of responsiveness to market dynamics indicated a failure of the Permanent Settlement to adapt to changing agricultural conditions.
Zamindars’ Lack of Interest in Land Improvement
Many zamindars, having lost land or become disinterested, preferred receiving rent rather than investing in land improvements.
Ideas: This disengagement undermined agricultural productivity and reflected a systemic issue within land management practices in colonial India.
Conclusion
The Permanent Settlement was intended to stabilize revenue collection but failed to incentivize actual agricultural improvement, leading to ongoing problems within the agrarian economy.
Summary: Understanding these dynamics can provide insights into contemporary agricultural policies and land management issues.

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Notes on Revenue Systems in British India

A New System is Devised

Historical Context: In the early 19th century, the Company's officials recognized the need for reforming the revenue collection system due to inefficiencies and the increasing financial strain on the Company.
- Thoughts: This highlights how colonial administrators were often reactive to their financial needs rather than proactive in addressing the welfare of local populations.
Mahal System: Introduced by Holt Mackenzie in 1822 in the North Western Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh), it focused on recognizing villages as social units for revenue collection.
- Additional Information: The mahal system emphasized the role of village leaders in the collection process and aimed to create a more organized revenue framework. Each village (mahal) had a defined revenue responsibility.
Collector Responsibilities: Collectors were tasked with measuring land, understanding local customs, and determining revenue obligations, which were to be paid periodically.
- Thoughts: This reliance on local customs shows an attempt to integrate traditional systems with colonial governance, perhaps to ease local resistance to British rule.

The Munro System

Introduction: In the southern British territories, a different approach was taken when devising the revenue system, known as the Munro system, which avoided traditional zamindars.
- Thoughts: This reflects the adaptation of British policies to local conditions, showing a nuanced approach necessary for effective governance.
Direct Settlement with Cultivators: Thomas Munro's system involved direct dealings with the cultivators (ryots) rather than intermediaries like zamindars.
- Additional Information: This system sought to empower the actual farmers who tended the land, intending to minimize corruption and mismanagement associated with zamindari systems. Fields were surveyed meticulously to ensure fair revenue assessment.
Extension and Adaptation: The Munro system was gradually expanded to encompass broader regions, illustrating the flexibility of colonial policies in response to varying local dynamics.
- Thoughts: This demonstrates a potential acknowledgment of the rights of cultivators and a move towards a more equitable revenue system, despite the overarching colonial agenda.

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Notes on Indigo Production and the Champaran Movement

Indigo Production Shift
After the revolt, indigo production shifted from Bengal to Bihar.
This highlights the impact of socio-political movements on agricultural practices. The collapse in Bengal prompted planters to look for new opportunities, reflecting adaptability in the face of challenges.
Impact of Synthetic Dyes
The discovery of synthetic dyes in the late 19th century severely affected the indigo business.
This led to a decline in the demand for natural indigo, showing how technological advancements can disrupt traditional industries.
Mahatma Gandhi's Role
Gandhi's visit to Champaran was prompted by the pleas of a peasant.
This emphasizes the grassroots nature of the movement and Gandhi's commitment to standing up for the rights of farmers.
Beginning of the Champaran Movement
Gandhi's visit in 1917 marked the start of resistance against indigo planters.
This event is significant as it laid the groundwork for future civil disobedience movements in India, reflecting a shift towards organized resistance against exploitation.

Let's Recall (Matching Table)

Term	Description
ryot	peasant (1)
mahal	village (2)
niy	cultivation on ryot's lands (3)
ryoti	cultivation on planter's own land

This matching exercise helps solidify the understanding of key terms related to the agrarian economy in India during the colonial period.

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Notes on Indigo Rebellion and Commission

Background of the Indigo Rebellion (1859)
- The rebellion began when the Lieutenant Governor toured the region, which the ryots interpreted as government sympathy.
- This tour highlighted the growing discontent among farmers forced to grow indigo.
- Thought: The government's actions can significantly influence public sentiment and unrest; in this case, it served to rally the ryots against oppressive contracts.
Notice by Ashley Eden
- A notice from the magistrate, Ashley Eden, stated that ryots would not be compelled to accept indigo contracts.
- His intent was to soothe the situation but ultimately had the opposite effect by being perceived as supporting the rebellion.
- Additional Info: This highlights the complexities of governance and the potential pitfalls of trying to navigate a volatile situation.
Spread of the Rebellion
- Intellectuals from Calcutta began to engage with the plight of the indigo cultivators, bringing broader awareness to the issue.
- The conditions faced by ryots involved tyranny from planters and grievances against the indigo system.
- Thought: The involvement of educated elites can amplify social movements, providing them with legitimacy and broader support.
Indigo Commission Findings
- The government established the Indigo Commission to investigate the situation surrounding indigo production.
- The Commission criticized planters for coercive practices and declared that indigo production was not profitable for ryots.
- It advised ryots to fulfill existing contracts but granted them the option to refuse future indigo production.
- Additional Info: This represents a shift in government policy, aiming to protect the rights of cultivators, indicative of changing attitudes toward colonial farming practices.
Testimony: Hadji Mulla's Statement
- Hadji Mulla, an indigo cultivator, expressed his sentiments: “I would rather beg than sow indigo.”
- This powerful statement underscores the desperation and resistance of the ryots against oppressive labor practices.
- Thought: Personal testimonies like Mulla’s are crucial in understanding the human impact of economic and colonial policies, providing a face to abstract struggles.

Source	Date	Speaker/Context
Source 3	5 June 1860	Hadji Mulla, indigo cultivator from Chandpore, Thana Hardi

These notes summarize the key aspects of the Indigo Rebellion and the subsequent Commission's findings, emphasizing the plight of ryots and the broader socio-political implications of colonial agricultural practices.

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Notes on "The Blue Rebellion" and After

Indigo Cultivation Problems
- Peasants faced disadvantages with the indigo system, particularly regarding the cycle of loans.
  - This system often forced them into a cycle of indebtedness, which was difficult to escape. Many preferred cultivating rice, which offered more sustainable returns, compared to the indigo crop that depleted the soil.
Blue Rebellion (1859)
- In March 1859, widespread protests erupted in Bengal against the indigo planters.
  - These events highlight the growing unrest among peasants against exploitative practices. The rebellion signifies a pivotal moment of resistance against colonial agricultural policies.
Methods of Protest
- Farmers utilized various methods to resist, including:
  - Attacking planters and their properties with weapons.
  - Boycotting the planters and refusing to work for them.
Role of Zamindars and Local Leaders
- The support from local zamindars (landlords) was critical for the peasants during the rebellion.
  - This support indicates that the resistance was not just a peasant movement but involved local power structures that were unhappy with colonial oversight as well.
Agents of Change
- The protests were characterized by various actors: women joined in resistance, and headmen mobilized support in villages.
  - This shows a collective effort across different societal roles to oppose oppression.
Expectation from the British Government
- Peasants harbored hopes that the British government would assist them in their struggle against the planters.
  - This reflects the complex dynamics of colonial governance, where the oppressed often looked to colonial authorities for resolution, despite the systemic oppression they faced.
Aftermath and Political Implications
- The aftermath of the rebellion was a mix of continued oppression and reluctance from the British to allow further unrest.
  - It underscores the potential for future uprisings and the colonial government's anxiety over maintaining control.

The above points provide a concise summary of the socio-political context of the Indigo Rebellion, highlighting the grievances of the peasants, the dynamics of local leadership, and the significance of these events in the larger narrative of colonial resistance in India.

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Indigo Production Process

Indigo Factory Overview
- The indigo factory is associated with agricultural practices in indigo villages.
- Indigo production primarily involved the labor of local planters, often working with several vats for processing the indigo plant.
Vats in Indigo Dyeing
- Indigo production required three or four vats, each serving a specific function within the dyeing process.
  - First Vat (Steeping Vat): The indigo plant material was soaked in warm water to ferment, which is crucial for starting the dye extraction.
  - Second Vat (Beater Vat): This vat incorporated continuous stirring of the liquid, allowing fermentation to change the color of the water from green to blue as indigo was separated.
Separation Process
- The process involved removing rotten leaves and allowing the solution to bubble, which helped in releasing the indigo dye.
- The liquid was then transferred to a settling vat where the dye could be isolated from the rest of the mixture.
Final Stages of Production
- After processing in the vats, the indigo pulp was transferred to another vat, pressed, and dried.
- The final product was then prepared for sale, which included stamping and cutting the indigo pulp into manageable blocks.
Workforce Involvement
- The illustrations suggest that the indigo production process was labor-intensive.
- Workers, often seen wearing traditional clothing, performed various tasks from stirring the vats to preparing the final product for sale.

This image provides a historical insight into the indigo dyeing process, emphasizing the importance of both the agricultural and labor elements involved in production.

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Notes on Indigo Cultivation and the Ryot System

Indigo Cultivation Requirements
- Indigo cultivation on a large scale required multiple ploughs and bullocks. A single bigha of indigo required two ploughs, meaning that a planter with 1,000 bighas would need around 2,000 ploughs.
  - This insight highlights the intensive agricultural demands of indigo farming, which contributed to economic strains on planters due to high initial investments.
Supply Chain Issues
- The need for supplies like ploughs and bullocks proved problematic for peasants who needed these resources at critical times for their rice fields, indicating a lack of synchronization in resource allocation.
  - This suggests that reliance on a specific crop like indigo could jeopardize the food security of local communities.
Contract System (Ryot System)
- Under the ryot system, planters required ryots (peasants) to sign contracts (satta) to cultivate indigo.
  - This setup often placed significant pressure on village heads to facilitate contracts, reflecting the hierarchical nature of agricultural management during this period.
Loan System
- Ryots who signed contracts often received cash advances from the planters at low interest rates to produce indigo.
  - However, this created a cycle of debt, where ryots were committed to cultivating indigo on at least 25% of their land as per their holding, leading to economic dependency on planters.
Role of Planters and Cultivators
- Planters provided the seed and drill while cultivators prepared the soil and sowed the seed, which indicates a division of labor that may have led to tension between planters and cultivators.
  - This arrangement underscores the exploitative nature of the system, where laborers may not have reaped the full benefits of their agricultural work.
Historical Context
- In the late 19th century, planters were hesitant to expand beyond areas already designated for indigo cultivation under the ryot system.
  - This resistance likely indicates a lack of resources or willingness to invest in the necessary changes that could benefit both planters and ryots.

This summary highlights the complexities and challenges associated with indigo cultivation under the ryot system, showing how agricultural practices can significantly impact local economies and social structures.

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Notes on Indigo Cultivation and Its Challenges

Historical Context

Indigo Cultivation in Bengal:
- From the late 18th century, indigo cultivation became prominent in Bengal.
- By 1785, West Bengal was producing a significant amount of indigo, with imports from Britain peaking at 95% by 1810.
- This period marked an important economic cycle as the demand for indigo increased globally.

Investment and Profit

Growth of Indigo Trade:
- The commercial viability of indigo attracted many investors, including numerous Englishmen who became planters in India.
- These investors were motivated by the prospects of high profits associated with indigo cultivation.

Cultivation Systems

Two Systems of Indigo Cultivation:
- Nij System: Planters produced indigo on lands they directly controlled, either through ownership or leasing from zamindars (landlords).
- Ryoti System: Involved peasants who cultivated indigo on their lands and paid rent to landlords, highlighting the hierarchical structure of agricultural production.

Challenges with Nij Cultivation

Land Acquisition Difficulties:
- Planters struggled to expand under the nij system since suitable fertile land was scarce and densely populated.
- Efforts to lease more land often led to conflicts and tensions with local farmers.
Labour Mobilization Issues:
- Large plantations demanded numerous hands to operate efficiently, especially during harvesting seasons.
- Synchronizing rice cultivation with indigo production was challenging; peasants were often busy with their rice crops, making them less available for indigo work.

Conclusion

Indigo cultivation represented a significant economic opportunity in Bengal, but the systems of production posed various challenges. The difficulties in land acquisition and labour mobilization underline the complexities of colonial agricultural systems and their impacts on local communities. Understanding these dynamics enriches our perspective on colonial economic practices and their long-term repercussions.

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Notes on the Demand for Indian Indigo

Importance of Indigo

Indigo Plant: The indigo plant is primarily grown in tropical regions, making it a significant agricultural product.
- Tropical Climate: The growth of tropical plants like indigo is directly linked to suitable climatic conditions, emphasizing the geographical factors influencing agriculture.

Role in European Textile Industry

Export to Europe: In the 13th century, Indian indigo was in demand among European cloth manufacturers.
- Cloth Dyeing: Indigos' vibrant blue color was essential for dyeing fabrics, as evidenced by its widespread use in various European countries.

Dependency on Indian Indigo

Limited Local Production: European manufacturers had to rely on Indian indigo due to limited local alternatives, as the blue dye from the indigo plant is not easily replicated.
- Competition with Woad: Woad, although available in Europe, produced a less vibrant color compared to indigo, creating further demand for the latter.

Historical Context

Seventeenth Century Change: By the 17th century, European producers pressured their governments to relax restrictions on indigo import, indicating its growing significance.
- Global Cultivation: The French began cultivating indigo in the Caribbean, while other European nations explored similar initiatives in their colonies.

Economic Impact

Decline in Native Production: By the end of the 18th century, indigo production in India decreased significantly, leading to a search for new sources of indigo.
- Industrialization: The industrial revolution in Britain accelerated the demand for indigo, making it an essential commodity in the textile industry.

Conclusion

Shift in Production Locations: The increasing reliance on Indian indigo marked a significant shift in agricultural practices, highlighting the intertwining of global markets and local economies.

Summary Table

Factor	Details
Indigo Plant Growth	Thrives in tropical regions
Demand in Europe	High since the 13th century
Local Alternatives	Limited options; competition with woad
Cultivating in Colonies	French in Caribbean, British in other areas
Economic Impact	British industrialization increased demand
Production Decline	Significant reduction by late 18th century

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Notes on British Agricultural Policies in India

All was not well

Overview: Following the implementation of new agricultural systems under British rule, the intended economic benefits were undermined by various issues.
- Peasant Distress: High revenue demands led to many peasants fleeing their lands due to inability to pay taxes.
  - Thoughts: This reflects the unsustainable nature of the revenue model imposed by the British, which prioritized profit over the welfare of the local agrarian population.
  - Additional Information: Such pressure often resulted in abandoned villages and decreased agricultural productivity, which would have long-term economic repercussions.
Optimistic Expectations: British officials initially believed that the new systems would convert peasants into wealthy farmers.
- Thoughts: This indicates a disconnect between British officials' expectations and the reality of Indian agrarian society.
- Additional Information: The transformation required significant capital investment and support, which was minimal under colonial governance.

Crops for Europe

British Strategies: The British recognized the need to not only ensure revenue but also expand agricultural production to include crops demanded by European markets.
- Thoughts: This highlights the exploitative nature of colonial agriculture, focused on export crops rather than subsistence farming.
- Additional Information: Over time, this led to a monoculture economy, making farmers vulnerable to market fluctuations and pests.

Key Crops Identified:

Opium and Indigo Cultivation: The British promoted these cash crops to maximize revenue from Indian agriculture.
Diverse Crops: Other significant crops included:
- Jute in Bengal
- Tea in Assam
- Sugarcane in the United Provinces (now Uttar Pradesh)
- Wheat in Punjab
- Cotton in Maharashtra and Punjab
- Rice in Madras
Methods of Expansion: The British utilized various tactics to expand these crops' cultivation.
- Thoughts: This approach involved both persuasion and coercion, leaving farmers with fewer choices regarding what to plant.
- Additional Information: These methods often disregarded local agricultural practices and knowledge, leading to ecological and social issues.

Does colour have a history?

Cultural Significance: The mention of cotton prints indicates the intertwined nature of agriculture and cultural identity in India.
- Thoughts: The aesthetics of cotton prints represent not just art but also reflect the historical and economic contexts of textile production.
- Additional Information: Understanding this history is essential for assessing the consequences of colonial policies on traditional industries and crafts.

This summary encapsulates the critical points about British colonial agriculture in India, focusing on the disconnect between policy expectations and real-world consequences, as well as the exploitation of Indian farmers for European economic benefit.

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Notes on Revenue for the Company and Economic Crisis in Bengal

Colonial Control and Local Power
- The Company learned that while it needed to control local power, complete elimination was not feasible. This suggests a nuanced approach to governance where local authorities were acknowledged to maintain stability.
- Thoughts: This reflects a strategic understanding of colonial dynamics where indirect rule can often be more effective than direct governance, preserving order and authority.
Revenue Generation
- The Company, having become the Diwan, sought to boost revenue without establishing a formal assessment system for tax collection. They aimed to purchase goods at the lowest possible price while increasing exports.
- Additional Information: This illustrates the exploitative practices typical of colonial economies, where local resources were extracted for the profit of the colonizers rather than being used to benefit the local populace.
Artisan and Peasant Hardships
- The economic situation deteriorated, leading artisans to abandon villages and peasants unable to meet dues, which indicates severe economic distress.
- Thoughts: This abandonment of agriculture and craft industries likely contributed to the social disruption and decline of traditional livelihoods, highlighting the human cost of colonial economic policies.
Decline of Agricultural Production
- A significant decline in artisanal production and agricultural cultivation was noted, marking a shift from sustainable local economies to reliance on colonial structures.
- Context: This can be tied to global economic shifts during colonial periods where local economies were restructured primarily to benefit external markets.
Famine of 1770
- The text describes a catastrophic famine in 1770 that killed an estimated ten million people in Bengal, which aligns with historical accounts of widespread suffering caused by colonial policies that disregarded local welfare.
- Additional Thoughts: This devastating event underscores the fatal consequences of colonial exploitation, where local needs were neglected in favor of profit maximization, leading to mass starvation and demographic shifts.

Aspect	Details
Role of the Company	Diwan, major trader, revenue generator
Economic Crisis	Artisan desertion, peasant hardships
Famine Impact	1770 famine, approx. 10 million dead
Agricultural Decline	Shift from local production to exports

These notes provide insight into the complex economic dynamics during the colonial period in Bengal, emphasizing the consequences of exploitation and mismanagement by colonial powers.

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The Company Becomes the Diwan

Appointment of the East India Company
On 12 August 1765, the Mughal emperor appointed the East India Company as the Diwan (financial administrator) of Bengal.
This was a pivotal moment in British colonial history, as it marked the transition from a trading company to a governing and administrative authority in India, further entrenching British power in the region.
Setting of the Event
The appointment event most likely took place in Robert Clive's tent, involving a mix of Englishmen and Indians as witnesses.
This suggests the involvement of local figures and the collaboration (or coercion) with Indian elites during colonial administration, reflecting complex power dynamics.
Significance of the Painting
The painting commissioned by Clive captures this moment, crafted to show the grandeur of the occasion.
Art played a significant role in shaping perceptions of British colonial power, glorifying their achievements while often marginalizing local narratives.
Diwan Role and Responsibilities
As Diwan, the Company needed to manage the territory, including land administration and organizing revenue resources.
The focus on revenue generation underlines the economic motives of colonialism, with the Company prioritizing profit over the welfare of the local population.
Need for Revenue Generation
The Company had to devise strategies that yielded sufficient revenue to cover its growing expenses.
This reflects the economic pressure on colonial entities to maximize profits, often at the expense of local economies and livelihoods.
Trading Company Transformation
The Company transitioned from trading to a governing body, which required it to ensure steady acquisition of goods to meet colonial demands.
This transition indicates a fundamental shift in the nature of imperial enterprises, where trade was no longer just a commercial activity but became intertwined with governance and control.

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