The Evolution of Total War in the American Civil War

The Changing Nature of the War

Learning Objectives

• Explain what is meant by the term “total war” and provide examples

  • Total war involves the complete mobilization of resources and people, blurring the lines between military and civilian assets. It changes the nature of warfare, making civilians targets in order to undermine the enemy's capacity to continue fighting. Classic examples include World War I and World War II, but the concept began to take shape during the American Civil War.

• Describe mobilization efforts in the North and the South

  • Both the North and South faced challenges in mobilization. The North relied on industrial capacity and larger manpower pools, while the South struggled with fewer resources and a reliance on agrarian economy. The necessity for better organization led to significant reforms in both armies' approaches to recruitment and supply chains.

• Explain why 1863 was a pivotal year in the war

  • The year 1863 saw key battles such as Gettysburg, which turned the tide for the Union. It was also the year Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation, which shifted the war aims to include the abolition of slavery as a central objective, adding moral impetus to the Union cause.

• Summarize the purpose and effect of the Emancipation Proclamation

  • The Emancipation Proclamation was intended to weaken the Confederacy by freeing slaves in rebellious states, thereby destabilizing the Southern economy and compelling former slaves to join the Union Army. Its effects were far-reaching, symbolizing a commitment to human rights and transformation of the war's goals.

Mass Mobilization

• Characteristics of total war

  • By late 1862, the nature of conflict changed with armies striking not only military targets but also civilian resources. This approach aimed to demoralize the enemy and hasten surrender. The distinction between military and civilian targets blurred, leading to the ethos of total war.

• Challenges in mobilization

  • Both the Union and Confederacy needed extensive resources and manpower, stretching their realms of control into citizens’ lives. Governments had to adapt more substantial organizational strategies to manage these efforts.

Confederate Mobilization

• Draft and socioeconomic impact

  • The Confederate government, facing manpower shortages, instituted a draft that required men ages 18 to 35 to serve. This transformed the democratic ideals of states’ rights into a necessity for survival, met with resistance from various socioeconomic classes. Wealthier individuals often hired substitutes, which angered poorer citizens and created class tensions. Exerting control over individual freedoms was necessary for maintaining the army, but it contradicted the ongoing narrative of states’ rights.

  • This paradox highlighted the struggle between maintaining individual liberties and the needs of the state during wartime.

Reference:

Notes on "The Changing Nature of the War" (1863)

• Confederate Government's Economic Strategies

  • The Confederate government took control of the Southern economy to fund the war, emphasizing state resources for military needs.
    • Thoughts: This centralization reflects a shift in governance necessary during wartime, although it conflicted with the principles of states' rights championed by many Southern leaders.
    • Additional Information: This included running railways and factories to support military logistics, which deviated from pre-war economic practices emphasizing local control.

• Taxation and Economic Strain

  • In 1863, there was a desperate need for revenue, yet plantation owners resisted taxes on enslaved individuals or cotton, leading the Confederacy to pursue alternative taxation.
    • Thoughts: The reluctance to tax individuals involved in the plantation system underscores the difficulties faced by the Confederacy in balancing economic needs with societal norms.
    • Additional Information: This ominous financial situation sparked resistance among citizens as the government struggled to fund the war effort without alienating its base.

• Food Prices and Civil Unrest

  • Inflation during the war led to food prices skyrocketing, causing many Southern civilians, especially mothers, to riot in response to starvation.
    • Thoughts: This illustrates the dire humanitarian crisis in the Confederacy, reflecting the war's impact on daily life and public sentiment.
    • Additional Information: The rioters' demands show a disconnect between the government’s wartime policies and the real needs of the civilian population.

• Confederate's Gamble on Cotton Sales

  • The hope that cotton exports would sustain the economy did not materialize, as the blockade hindered trade with Britain and France, further deepening economic woes.
    • Thoughts: This miscalculation highlights the vulnerabilities of relying on a single commodity, particularly in a wartime context where supply chains are fragile.
    • Additional Information: The shift in trading partners to alternative sources strained the Southern economy and diminished the Confederacy’s leverage in negotiating with foreign nations.

• International Perspectives

  • The Confederate government anticipated that alliances with Britain and France would secure economic assistance and military support, yet these hopes largely went unfulfilled.
    • Thoughts: The divergence in political expectations versus reality showcases how international dynamics can influence national policies, particularly in wartime situations.
    • Additional Information: The outcomes exemplified shifting global alliances during the Civil War and the complexities of negotiating support in an already challenging war environment.

Table Summary

Reference:

The Changing Nature of the War

• Dissent within the Confederacy
  The Confederacy faced internal disagreements regarding central government power, impacting their war efforts.

  • Many politicians had differing views, especially states' rights advocates, who were opposed to a strong central government. This directly affected President Davis's ability to mobilize resources effectively.
  • Additional info: This dissent weakened the Confederacy's coherence, leading to inefficiencies in responding to the war's demands.

• Racial Tensions and Military Service
  Racial dynamics influenced military participation and societal stability within the South.

  • African Americans who volunteered were often refused service, showcasing the entrenched racism of the time. Many white citizens expressed fears of insurrections by enslaved individuals.
  • Thoughts: The fear of insurrection further complicated Southern society, as African Americans sought to contribute to the war efforts while facing systemic discrimination.

• Union Mobilization
  The Union government was more effective in its mobilization efforts, leading to significant changes in the war strategy.

  • Federal initiatives, such as the Homestead Act of 1862, encouraged settlement and agricultural production in the West, helping supply the war effort.
  • Additional information: These policies not only increased agricultural output but also bolstered the Northern economy by promoting westward expansion.

• Republican Emphasis on Free Labor
  The Republican Party's focus on free labor contrasted sharply with the South's reliance on enslaved labor, influencing legislation.

  • The establishment of agricultural colleges through the 1862 Land Grant College Act aimed to advance agricultural techniques and bolster free labor.
  • Thoughts: This emphasis on education and innovation could be seen as a strategy to establish a sustainable economic model independent of slavery.

• Funding the War Efforts
  Various strategies were employed by Congress to fund the war, reflecting the urgency of the situation.

  • Measures included taxes on income and the issuance of bonds to finance military operations. The introduction of "greenbacks" aimed to stabilize the economy and facilitate war financing.
  • Additional info: Such financial strategies represented the government’s attempt to adapt economically while maintaining the war effort, which ultimately affected post-war policies and financial structures.

Reference:

Notes on "The Changing Nature of the War" (1863)

Enrollment Act and Conscription

• Key Point: The Union implemented the Enrollment Act in March 1863 to conscript troops.
  • Thoughts: This marked a shift from voluntary enlistment to mandatory service, reflecting the war's demands.
  • Additional Information: The Act required all able-bodied men between the ages of 20 and 45 to register for the draft. This move indicated the increasing urgency for manpower.

Draft Loopholes

• Key Point: The law allowed individuals to avoid military service by hiring substitutes.
  • Thoughts: This created a disparity among social classes, where wealth could exempt individuals from service, leading to discontent among poorer citizens.
  • Additional Information: The $300 payment to avoid the draft was a significant amount at the time, potentially excluding lower-income individuals from this option.

Impact of Dred Scott Decision

• Key Point: African Americans were exempt from the draft due to the Supreme Court's Dred Scott v. Sandford decision.
  • Thoughts: This illustrates the racial inequalities in military service and citizenship rights during this period.
  • Additional Information: The ruling stated that African Americans had no rights as citizens, reflecting the broader context of racial discrimination in 19th-century America.

Suspension of Habeas Corpus

• Key Point: The Union suspended habeas corpus, allowing for the arrest of suspected Confederate sympathizers.
  • Thoughts: This reflects the tension and urgency of the times, prioritizing national security over civil liberties.
  • Additional Information: President Lincoln signed the Habeas Corpus Suspension Act to enhance governmental powers in detaining individuals without trial, a controversial measure in American history.

Women's Mobilization

• Key Point: Women played a crucial role in supporting the war effort on both sides.
  • Thoughts: This involvement expanded the traditional roles of women and contributed significantly to the war's logistics and care for soldiers.
  • Additional Information: Women organized societies to provide uniforms, medical supplies, and other necessities. Many also volunteered as nurses, furthering women's involvement in public life.

Additional Notes

• The text emphasizes the increasing power of federal governments in both the Union and Confederacy to mobilize resources and citizens, reflecting a shift in governmental authority during wartime.
• Both governments used various strategies, including propaganda and enrollment campaigns, to recruit soldiers, illustrating the total war approach initiated during the Civil War.

Reference:

Notes on Lincoln's Evolving Thoughts on Slavery (August 1862)

Emancipation and Lincoln's Cautious Approach

• Cautious Strategy: Lincoln approached the issue of slavery with great caution.
  • Thoughts: This reflects his concern about the political and social ramifications of any decisive action regarding slavery.
  • Additional Info: His approach aimed to balance the need for Union preservation with the moral imperative to address slavery.

Letter to Horace Greeley

• Content of the Letter: Lincoln expressed his position on slavery, emphasizing that his primary goal was to save the Union.
  • Thoughts: This suggests that Lincoln prioritized national unity over the issue of slavery at this stage.
  • Additional Info: The letter served as a crucial public statement, highlighting his evolving views and the complexity of his stance on emancipation.

Key Points from Lincoln's Position

• Restoring the Union: Lincoln believed in restoring national authority as it was before the split.

  • Thoughts: This indicates he viewed the Union as essential for maintaining democracy and governance.
  • Additional Info: His strategy involved navigating the interests of both abolitionists and slave-holding states.

• Action Against Slavery: He was open to actions that would lead to emancipation if they could also support the Union's efforts.

  • Thoughts: Lincoln’s willingness to consider freeing slaves reflects a shift toward a more active role in addressing slavery.
  • Additional Info: This pragmatic approach underscores the challenges he faced balancing moral and political priorities.

Personal Context

• Mix of Personal and Official Duty: Lincoln indicated that his personal views might evolve according to the needs of the Union.
  • Thoughts: This points to his flexible approach to leadership and the necessity to adapt his beliefs in light of evolving circumstances.
  • Additional Info: Lincoln's humility in recognizing the possibility of changing his views demonstrates a commitment to the greater good.

Overall Implications

• Changing Nature of War: Lincoln's position on slavery during the war was reflective of a broader context in which the Union's survival influenced all decisions, including those on emancipation.
  • Thoughts: This strategy highlights the complex interplay between war efforts and social reform.
  • Additional Info: As the war progressed, his stance would further evolve, culminating in the Emancipation Proclamation, which would redefine the war's purpose.

Reference: