Roman Philosophy, Literature, and Historical Context

Notes on Roman Philosophy and Literature

• Influence of Stoicism:

  • Seneca and Epictetus emphasized inner serenity and virtue, promoting the idea that true happiness comes from surrendering to a benevolent cosmic order.
  • Stoicism, influential in Roman thought, advocated for resilience in the face of external challenges, asserting that individuals should focus on rational self-control.

• Marcus Aurelius:

  • As a Roman Stoic, he reflected a more fatalistic view, yet still upheld the importance of virtue.
  • His writings promote the acceptance of fate and a focus on virtuous living amidst life's uncertainties, which may resonate with modern views on mindfulness and acceptance.

• Virgil's Philosophical Reflection:

  • Virgil, while influenced by Epicurean pleasure, integrated Stoic ideals into his works, using them to explore themes of human fate and harmony with nature.
  • His epic, Aeneid, not only narrates historical conquests but also encapsulates Roman values and imperial philosophy, indicating literature's role in shaping national identity.

• Literary Contributions of the Augustan Age:

  • Key figures include Horace, Virgil, Ovid, and Livy, who collectively enriched Roman literature during a time of political and cultural transformation.
  • These authors utilized their works to reflect and reinforce societal values, thus highlighting the interplay between literature and the political landscape of their time.

• Philosophy of Pleasure vs. Duty:

  • The contrasting philosophies of pleasure (Epicureanism) and duty (Stoicism) suggest a broader discussion on human motivation—whether individuals are primarily driven by the pursuit of enjoyment or by responsibilities to society.

• Historical Context:

  • This period was marked by a blending of literary and philosophical traditions, with roots in earlier Greek thought while evolving under Roman influences.
  • The writings from this era not only offer insights into personal ethics but also into the larger socio-political norms of the Roman Empire.

Author	Dates	Notable Work	Philosophical Influence
Seneca	c. 4 B.C.–65 A.D.	—	Stoicism
Epictetus	55–135 A.D.	—	Stoicism
Marcus Aurelius	121–180 A.D.	Meditations	Stoicism
Horace	65–8 B.C.	Odes	Stoicism, Epicureanism
Virgil	70–19 B.C.	Aeneid, Eclogues	Stoicism, Epicureanism
Ovid	43 B.C.–17 A.D.	Metamorphoses	—
Livy	59 B.C.–17 A.D.	Ab Urbe Condita	—

Reference:

mscarranzahistory.weebly.com

[PDF] Chapter 1: Roman Civilization - Ms.Carranza

diginole.lib.fsu.edu

[PDF] The Philosophical and Rhetorical Concept of Enargeia at Work in ...

civilizationchronicles.com

Roman Contributions to Literature: Shaping Western Narratives ...

Culture and Life in the Period of the Principate

• Roman Civilization During the Principate

  • The Principate (27 B.C. to about 200 A.D.) marked a peak in Roman intellectual and artistic achievements. This period was characterized by an enormous output in literature and significant advancements in engineering and architecture.
  • Thoughts: This period serves as a testament to Rome's cultural and intellectual prosperity which has had a lasting impact on Western civilization. It reflects a time of innovation and creativity.

• Stoicism's Popularity

  • Stoicism emerged as a leading philosophical school during this time, praised for its focus on self-discipline, resilience, and adapting to life’s challenges.
  • Additional Info: This philosophy resonated with the Roman ideals of civic responsibility and personal duty, making it appealing to the political-minded citizens of Rome.

• Zeno and the Evolution of Stoicism

  • The foundational concepts of Stoicism were developed by Zeno. His teachings evolved significantly in the Principate, incorporating a broader view that included politics and ethics.
  • Thoughts: The adaptation of Stoicism in Rome illustrates how philosophical ideas can transform and integrate into different cultures.

• Figure of Marcus Aurelius

  • Marcus Aurelius is noted as a prominent figure in Stoicism and is represented in a notable equestrian statue located in Rome.
  • Additional Info: This statue is significant as it is one of the few remaining bronze statues from antiquity, emphasizing Marcus Aurelius’s philosophical stance while also serving as a symbol of Roman leadership. Early Christians destroyed similar statues, mistaking them for worship.

Summary of Key Points

Key Concept	Explanation
Types of Achievements	Flourishing literature, engineering, and architecture during the Principate.
Philosophical Influence	Stoicism gained popularity for its practical applications and moral teachings.
Historical Context	Zeno's teachings evolved, adapting to Roman cultural and ethical frameworks.
Symbol of Leadership	Marcus Aurelius exemplifies the blending of philosophy and governance in Rome.

Final Thoughts

• The period signifies a pivotal moment in history where philosophy, culture, and governance interplayed, laying foundations that continue to influence contemporary thought today.

Reference:

iep.utm.edu

Stoicism | Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

www.stoicsimple.com

Did Stoicism Have Any Influence on Ancient Rome? - Stoic Simple

study.com

Roman Stoicism | Overview, Beliefs & Virtues - Lesson - Study.com

Notes on the Principate and Early Empire

• Administrative Authority of Consuls
  The text discusses the role of consuls in the Roman Empire, emphasizing the importance of their authority in managing provincial governance. This system aimed to ensure direct control and accountability, reducing the possibility of corruption that often arose from extensive land management and taxation practices that were prevalent in outlying provinces.

• Augustus’s Reforms
  Augustus reformed the Roman administrative structure to promote accountability and reduce abuses. His actions included imposing restrictions on luxury and encouraging virtues among the governors, which signified a shift towards a more moral and upright form of governance.

• Succession of Rulers Post-Augustus
  After Augustus's death, the qualities of subsequent rulers varied greatly. The mention of Caligula and Nero indicates periods of instability and tyranny, contrasting sharply with the capable governance experienced during the early years of the Empire.

• Pax Romana
  The term "Pax Romana" refers to the long peace maintained within the Roman Empire. The text mentions that this era saw significant territorial expansion and military conquests under emperors like Trajan and the consolidation efforts of others. It illustrates how these periods fostered increased trade, economic growth, and cultural exchanges across the Empire.

• Key Emperors

  • Nerva (96–98) : First of the Five Good Emperors, known for initiating a period of peace and stability.
  • Trajan (98–117) : Noted for territorial expansion and military accomplishments.
  • Hadrian (117–138) : Focused on consolidating and fortifying the Empire's borders rather than expanding further, which marked a strategic shift.
  • Marcus Aurelius (161–180) : Represented the philosophical approach to governance, emphasizing wisdom and reflection.

• Military and Territorial Challenges
  Augustus's attempts to expand the Empire's boundaries were complicated by various military conflicts and defeats, particularly in areas like Germany and the Danube. This highlights the difficulties faced by leaders in balancing expansion with the practical limitations of military power.

Key Emperors	Reign Period
Nerva	96–98
Trajan	98–117
Hadrian	117–138
Marcus Aurelius	161–180

• Cultural Significance of Pax Romana
  The "Pax Romana" is recognized as a period where the Mediterranean was largely free from war, allowing arts and sciences to flourish. This peace contributed significantly to the legacy of the Roman Empire, as it established a foundation for Western civilization.

Reference:

www.history.com

How Ancient Rome Thrived During Pax Romana

www.britannica.com

Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Statue, Death ... - Britannica

www.britannica.com

Roman Empire, Reforms, Legacy

Roman Civilization: The Revival of Constitutional Government

• Octavian’s Determination: Octavian, later known as Augustus, sought to preserve and reshape the constitutional government of Rome.

  • Thoughts: This shows the balance he aimed to maintain between authority and the traditional republican structures.
  • Additional Info: Constitutional government involves the determination of principles that govern a state, emphasizing laws that apply equally to citizens and leaders.

• Titles Accepting: Augustus accepted titles that signified both military power and a semblance of republican authority, indicating a unique political strategy where he maintained the image of a republic while wielding effective power.

  • Thoughts: By adopting titles like "victorious general," Augustus enhanced his legitimacy without completely abolishing republican norms.
  • Additional Info: The title "first citizen" reflected a clear intention to differentiate his role from that of a traditional monarch, which was vital for public acceptance.

• Principate: The era of Augustus is referred to as the Principate, from the term "Princeps," meaning the first among equals.

  • Thoughts: This title was carefully chosen to appease those wary of autocracy, indicating Augustus's savvy in political messaging.
  • Additional Info: The Principate period marked the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire, defining the relationship between the emperor and the Senate.

• Reforms: Augustus implemented significant reforms, including the establishment of a centralized court system and local self-governance.

  • Thoughts: This reflects an early understanding of administrative decentralization, possibly aimed at increasing local loyalty and reducing the burden on central authorities.
  • Additional Info: By empowering local governments, Augustus fostered more efficient governance and improved public order in the provinces.

• Submission of German Barbarians: The artwork depicted is titled "The Emperor Augustus Receiving the Submission of German Barbarians," illustrating a historical moment of diplomacy and power consolidation.

  • Thoughts: This highlights not only military might but also the importance of political alliances in Augustus's reign.
  • Additional Info: Such diplomatic gestures were crucial for stabilizing borders and expanding influence without resorting solely to military conquest.

Topic	Details
Key Figure	Augustus (Octavian)
Period	Principate (27 B.C. onwards)
Major Reforms	Centralized court system, local self-governance
Title	"First Citizen"
Historical Artwork	"The Emperor Augustus Receiving the Submission of German Barbarians"
Significance of Titles	Balance of power and republican image

This structured approach helps one understand the complexities of Augustus's reign and the pivotal shifts in Roman governance, aligning with broader historical narratives.

Reference:

www.britannica.com

Augustus | Biography, Accomplishments, Statue, Death ... - Britannica

www.khanacademy.org

The Roman Empire (article) | Khan Academy

en.wikipedia.org

Augustus - Wikipedia

The Principate or Early Empire (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)

• Historical Background:

  • The text discusses the transition from the Roman Republic to the Roman Empire, highlighting key figures like Julius Caesar and Julius Caesar's adopted heir, Octavian (Augustus).
  • Thoughts: Understanding this transition is crucial for grasping the political and social dynamics of ancient Rome and its impacts on subsequent governance structures.

• Octavian's Rise to Power:

  • Following Julius Caesar's assassination, Octavian sought to consolidate power and eliminate rivals. He navigated the complexities of alliances and conflicts with figures such as Mark Antony.
  • Additional Information: The political maneuvers, including the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, were pivotal moments that established Octavian as the first emperor.

• Conflict Between East and West:

  • The struggle for dominance between the eastern and western parts of the Roman Empire is identified, primarily framed by Antony's ambitions and alliances.
  • Ideas: This division highlights the geographical and cultural complexities of ruling such a vast empire, setting the stage for future administrative challenges.

• Impact of the Battle of Actium:

  • The battle, marked by Octavian's decisive victory, signified not just a personal triumph but a shift in the political landscape of Rome. It overthrew the last remnants of the Republic's power.
  • Reflection: Analyzing this battle allows for a deeper understanding of military strategy and its socio-political repercussions.

• Cultural Symbolism:

  • The mention of the coin "Enchained Crocodile," symbolizes Augustus's victory at Actium and reflects the manipulation of cultural symbols for political propaganda.
  • Consideration: This use of symbolism can be seen as an early form of state-sponsored messaging, which resonates throughout history in various political contexts.

• Legacy of Augustus's Rule:

  • Augustus’s leadership is noted as a period of relative peace and prosperity known as the Pax Romana, which laid the groundwork for the Roman Empire's long-term stability.
  • Broader Implications: The establishment of the Principate influenced governance models in later European powers, illustrating the enduring impact of Roman administrative practices.

Reference:

civilizationchronicles.com

The Battle of Actium: A Turning Point in Roman History - Civilization ...

www.britannica.com

Battle of Actium | Octavian, Antony & Cleopatra | Britannica

roman-empire.net

The Battle of Actium: The Decisive Naval Clash of the Roman Republic

Notes on Historical Context of Kerala

• Kirtivarman II of the Western Chalukya Dynasty (745-755 A.D.)

  • This king is mentioned as a significant figure in the historical narrative of South Kerala, illustrating the political dynamics of the time.
  • Thoughts: The reign of Kirtivarman II indicates the intermingling of different dynasties in Kerala and how these relationships influenced local governance and culture.

• Ancient Inscriptions as Historical Sources

  • Inscriptions from various temples, especially those found in Adur and other areas, provide valuable insights into regional politics and cultural exchanges.
  • Additional Information: Such inscriptions help historians trace the influence of the Pandya and Chola rulers in Kerala and their interactions with local powers.

• Chola Dynastic Influence

  • The inscriptions highlight the friendly relations between notable Chola leaders, such as Aditya Chola and Rajendra Chola, and their impact on local governance.
  • Ideas: Understanding these relationships can shed light on the nature of alliances and conflicts during the time, which shaped the socio-political landscape of Kerala.

• Key Temples and Sites

  • Several temples, such as those in Cholapuram and others mentioned, serve as vital historical sources. The temples' locations and their inscriptions are crucial for historical geography.
  • Thoughts: Exploring these sites can provide a deeper understanding of the architectural and cultural shifts that occurred through centuries in Kerala.

• Importance of Chola Records

  • The Chola records from various periods, particularly around the late 10th and early 11th centuries, are invaluable for reconstructing Kerala's history prior to European contact.
  • Additional Information: Such records not only document political events but also reflect the economic, societal, and cultural developments of the era.

• Pre-Portuguese Period Reconstruction

  • The study of these inscriptions is essential for historians and archaeologists aiming to piece together the narrative of pre-colonial Kerala.
  • Ideas: By examining these texts, one can critically analyze the factors that led to the eventual shifts triggered by Portuguese influence in the region.

Reference:

en.wikipedia.org

Chola dynasty - Wikipedia

www.wisdomlib.org

Preface: A Brief Survey of Sources of Kerala History

en.wikipedia.org

History of South India - Wikipedia

A Survey of Kerala History: Inscriptions and Their Significance

• Kerala Inscriptions: The text discusses various inscriptions found in Kerala, which are vital for understanding the region's history.

  • Thoughts: These inscriptions often indicate administrative practices, social structure, and cultural elements of ancient Kerala.
  • Additional Information: Inscriptions are primary sources of historical data, shedding light on the governance and societal norms during different periods.

• Terisapalli Copper Plate: This plate from A.D. 849 provides one of the earliest records in Kerala.

  • Thoughts: The plate highlights the connections between the local governance and broader political entities.
  • Additional Information: It reflects Emperor Sthanu Ravi's administration and the importance of the Terisapalli temple.

• Role of Guilds: The mention of trade guilds such as Anjathikaran and Manigramam indicates a well-established trade network.

  • Thoughts: The existence of such guilds points to a thriving economy based on trade and commerce.
  • Additional Information: These guilds often had regulatory power and could influence local politics.

• Local Assemblies: The document notes the local assembly of Aruttumartt (Six Hundred) in Quilon, which played a role in the governance.

  • Thoughts: This indicates a structured political system that included local representation.
  • Additional Information: Assemblies like these often addressed local grievances and facilitated governance at the community level.

• Inscription of Aditya Varma: Various inscriptions from different time periods shed light on the dynasties of Kerala.

  • Thoughts: These records provide insights into the lineage and rule of specific kings, enhancing our understanding of succession and power dynamics.
  • Additional Information: Aditya Varma's inscriptions reveal palace life and societal standards during his reign.

• Influence of Language: The use of Grantha characters and Tamil language in inscriptions reflects cultural and linguistic diversity.

  • Thoughts: This suggests a melting pot of cultures, especially given the trade exchanges with Tamil regions.
  • Additional Information: Language in inscriptions can indicate the audience or administrative structure employed at that time.

Inscription Name	Year	Location	Language
Terisapalli Copper Plate	849 A.D.	Terisapalli temple	Sanskrit
Inscriptions of Aditya Varma	1155-1383 A.D.	Various (including Trivandrum)	Grantha, Tamil
Manalikkara inscription	1218 A.D.	Kandiyur temple	Sanskrit
Trikkanamkudi Bell inscription	1469-1484 A.D.	Trikkanamkudi	Sanskrit

• Cultural Heritage: The inscriptions reveal a blend of religious, economic, and social life in ancient Kerala.
  • Thoughts: Preserving these historical records is essential for understanding the evolution of Kerala's cultural identity.
  • Additional Information: This underscores the importance of archaeology and historiography in contemporary Kerala.

Reference:

sde.uoc.ac.in

[PDF] Kerala Society and Culture: Ancient and Medieval

www.teachmint.com

Survey of Kerala History by Prof. A. Sreedhara Menon - Teachmint

www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com

[PDF] A Brief Analysis of Inscriptions Related to Kizhperur, Kerala

A Peep into the Sources

• Udaya Marthanda Varma (1516-1535 A.D.)

  • Note: His rule indicates a progressive attitude towards religious tolerance, as evidenced by his concern for the well-being of Christians.
  • Thoughts: This reflects the broader context of religious interactions in Kerala, where various faiths coexisted and influenced each other.
  • Additional Information: Marthanda Varma's inscriptions highlight the importance of diverse religious practices in his administration.

• Perumpadappu Swarupam and Its Influence

  • Note: The Perumpadappu Swarupam, associated with the Mahodayapuram, played a crucial role in Kerala’s governance.
  • Thoughts: The privileges granted to different religious communities suggest a strategy to maintain harmony.
  • Additional Information: These records illustrate the administrative practices of the period and their impact on local governance.

• Syrian Christian Copper Plate (1225 A.D.)

  • Note: This plate issued by Vira Raghava Chakravarti highlights the historical significance of Christian communities in Kerala.
  • Thoughts: The early documentation of Christian privileges may indicate the integration of Christianity into the socio-political framework of the region.
  • Additional Information: It emphasizes how the region was able to accommodate various religious identities within its governance structure.

• Inscription from Tirurvalla Copper Plates

  • Note: These plates are significant for understanding temple management in medieval Kerala.
  • Thoughts: They serve as primary sources indicating how temples functioned not just as religious centers but also as local administrative hubs.
  • Additional Information: The mention of the Kacham highlights the socio-economic structures tied to temple administration.

• The Pattazhi Copper Scroll

  • Note: Contains crucial information about the Bhagavathi temple and its administrative framework.
  • Thoughts: This scroll serves as a tangible link between religion and governance, illustrating how temple authority influenced local power dynamics.
  • Additional Information: The mention of monetary fines and obligations reflects the economic aspects of religious institutions.

• Historical Context of Kacham

  • Note: The Kottuvariaveli Kacham reflects the rights and regulations of Namboothiri Brahmins.
  • Thoughts: Understanding these regulations provides insights into the caste system and its interrelations with temple authority.
  • Additional Information: The Kacham may indicate the socio-political hierarchy prevalent during the period.

Topic	Detail
Udaya Marthanda Varma	Ruler known for religious tolerance towards Christians
Perumpadappu Swarupam	Important in governing and granting privileges to religious communities
Syrian Christian Copper Plate	Issued by Vira Raghava Chakravarti, highlights Christian community rights
Tirurvalla Copper Plates	Significant for temple management and administrative roles
Pattazhi Copper Scroll	Contains details about the Bhagavathi temple and its administration
Kacham	Reflects rights of Namboothiri Brahmins and impacts on local governance

• Importance of Understanding Inscriptions
  • Note: Inscriptions serve as crucial artifacts for reconstructing Kerala's historical narratives.
  • Thoughts: They help historians connect socio-political dynamics with local religious practices.
  • Additional Information: A comprehensive study of these inscriptions can unveil patterns of alliance, resistance, and cultural synthesis in Kerala’s history.

A Survey of Kerala History

• Pahlavi Cross Inscription:

  • This inscription was discovered at the Orthodox Syrian church in Kadamattam.
  • It’s noteworthy for its historical significance, measuring 13" x 20" and resembling the St. Thomas Mount Cross.
  • Thoughts: Such artifacts illustrate the cultural and religious dynamics in Kerala, showcasing early Christianity's presence in the region.

• Valapally in Thazhathangadi:

  • This church is affiliated with the Knanaya Orthodox Syrians and dates back to the time of the Thekkumkur Rajas.
  • The presence of multiple inscriptions at Valapally emphasizes its importance in understanding the Christian heritage in Kerala.
  • Additional Info: The Knanaya community has a distinct identity due to their traditions, which highlight the long-standing history of Christianity in India.

• Historical Inscriptions:

  • The text mentions various epigraphic records from mosques, including Arabic inscriptions and the importance of their context.
  • For instance, the Arabic inscription recorded in the Madayi or Payyannur mosque in 580 A.D. provides insights into the socio-political environment of that era.
  • Thoughts: The coexistence of various religious communities is evident, with inscriptions offering a glimpse into historical inter-religious relations.

• Kozhikode and Bilingual Records:

  • There's mention of records in Malayalam and Arabic from the 13th century, implying a blend of cultures and languages.
  • The inscription at Kuttichira highlights the cultural syncretism in Kerala.
  • Additional Info: This could indicate trade connections and the influence of Arabic culture in Kerala's coastal regions.

• Significance of the Jewish Copper Plate and Other Inscriptions:

  • Includes the Jewish Copper Plate from 849 A.D. which illustrates the historical ties between Jews and the local communities.
  • The White Jews’ Synagogue and the inscription recorded in 1269 A.D. highlight the established presence of Jewish culture in Kerala.
  • Thoughts: Such records demonstrate Kerala's longstanding reputation as a cosmopolitan trading center attracting diverse communities.

• Edicts of Asoka:

  • The reference to the 3rd and 13th Edicts of Asoka (reigned 274-237 B.C.) gives insights into early governance in Kerala.
  • The inscription of Aranattaramalai in Karur indicates interactions with local rulers and the significance of the Chera dynasty.
  • Additional Info: Such inscriptions serve as vital sources for reconstructing early historical narratives in South India.

• Chera Kings and Sangam Works:

  • The Tamil inscription discovered references the Chera rulers and provides genealogical evidence essential for historical continuity.
  • Insights into the 6th to 8th-century kings reflect conflicts with the Chalukyas and other powers, showcasing the political landscape of the time.
  • Thoughts: Understanding these connections can deepen our knowledge of regional power dynamics and cultural exchanges during this period.

Inscriptions and Context	Details
Pahlavi Cross Inscription	Discovered at Kadamattam, significant artifact
Arabic Inscription in Madayi Mosque	Dates to 580 A.D., reflects socio-political life
Jewish Copper Plate	Dates to 849 A.D., symbolizes trade relationships
Edicts of Asoka	3rd and 13th Edicts influence on governance in Kerala
Tamil Inscription from Sangam Literature	Vital for understanding Chera dynasty & local history

A Peep into the Sources

• Bhaskara Ravi Varman's Records:

  • The name Bhaskara Ravi Varman appears in various records across different regions of Kerala, including Tirunellai, Trikkakara, and Perunna.
  • This indicates the geographical reach and influence of his reign within the region. The varied records suggest a complex historical narrative that needs careful excavation and interpretation.

• Synchronism in Inscriptions:

  • The Trikkodithanam record establishes a triple synchromism involving Bhaskara Ravi Varman, Sri Vallabhan Kotha, and the Jewish community in 1000 A.D.
  • This provides insights into the cultural exchanges and relations between different communities, particularly how minority groups like the Jews were integrated into the socio-political fabric of Kerala.

• Chalapuram Temple Inscription:

  • Dating back to 1020 A.D., this inscription chronicles the victory of Rajendra Chola over the Cheras, shedding light on the political dynamics and conflicts in the region.
  • The mention of the Chera ruler and their territorial claims helps us understand the power struggles and territorial disputes characteristic of this era.

• Inscriptions from Irinjalkuda:

  • An inscription from Irinjalkuda notes the privileges granted by the Chera emperor Rajasimha to Christian merchants, highlighting the economic relations within the diverse cultural tapestry of Kerala.
  • It underscores the significance of commerce in promoting inter-community relations, suggesting that trade was a vital element fostering coexistence among different religious groups.

• Ay Kings of South Kerala:

  • The document notes the Ay Kings, particularly the Kulasekharas of Mahodayapuram, and their significant contributions as contemporaries.
  • The mention of their inscriptions reveals the political landscape and helps trace the lineage and influence of royal families in Kerala’s historical narrative. The use of inscriptions reflects their importance in legitimizing power and authority.

Summary of Key Inscriptions

Incription Location	Year	Description
Trikkodithanam	1000 A.D	Establishes synchromism with Bhaskara Ravi Varman and Jews.
Chalapuram Temple	1020 A.D	Details Rajendra Chola's victory over the Cheras.
Irinjalkuda	1030 A.D	Grants privileges to Christian merchants by Rajasimha.
Mahodayapuram	800-1102	Inscriptions credit Ay Kings including the Kulasekharas.

These inscriptions and their interpretations are crucial for understanding the socio-political milieu of ancient Kerala, reflecting the interplay of power, culture, and commerce during the era.

Reference:

en.wikipedia.org

Sthanu Ravi Varma - Wikipedia

www.heritageuniversityofkerala.com

[PDF] Problems in Fixing the Regnal Years of the Rulers of ...

en.wikipedia.org

Ravivarman Kulaśēkhara - Wikipedia